Information Ethics: The Second Generation

by Simon Rogerson and Terrell Ward Bynum

Introduction

Society in general and organisations in particular are becoming more dependant upon computer technology. Those responsible for the development and application of computer technology are faced with decisions of increasing complexity which are accompanied by many ethical dilemmas. Computer technology is a special and unique technology, and hence the associated ethical issues warrant special attention. Such issues have attracted the attention of researchers from many disciplines resulting in a broad body of knowledge albeit quite shallow in places. The growing interest in this area is due, primarily,  to a lingering concern that computer professionals are unable, ill-prepared or simply ambivalent to considering ethical issues that occur in their work. There is increasing evidence that computer professionals do not recognise when and where ethical issues present themselves. Given the vital role information systems professionals have "in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing and use of information and its associated technologies, in society and organisations" (UKAIS 1995), IS-focused research, that addresses the ethical dimension, must be undertaken.

The research to date has tended to be undertaken within single disciplines. There has been little multi-disciplinary work which has resulted in,  for example, philosophical offerings being weak in the detailed knowledge of the technology whilst offerings from within IS and computer science have often lacked sufficient philosophical underpinnings. This may be the reason why according to Maner (1996), "Joseph Behar, a sociologist, finds computer ethics diffuse and unfocused." and why "Gary Chapman, when he spoke to the Computers and Quality of Life Conference in 1990, complained that no advances had been made in computer ethics." This situation is changing. The authors of this paper represent a genuine partnership between IS and philosophy, and recent papers by the influential IS researchers Walsham (1996) and Wood-Harper (1995) exhibit strong theoretical ethics foundations

This paper samples the progress made in this area during the last 15 to 20 years. It is suggested that a change of emphasis has occurred resulting in the commencement of a second generation of research. This new information ethics era is focused on the global nature of information systems and requires multi-disciplinary research to address a growing number of associated ethical and sociological issues.

 Computer Ethics: The First Generation

According to Mitcham (1995), the evolution of computers has resulted in the emergence of at least eight ethics-related issues: These issues have emerged as the result of work by computer scientists, philosophers and sociologists. Indicative work is included to provide an understanding of the breadth and depth of this area of study.

Weizenbaum (1976) suggested that there were areas of human endeavour that should be off limits for computerisation. He stated that applications outside a pre-defined boundary ought not to be undertaken. In this way technologists would be restricted so countering their ambivalence towards the social impact of their actions. This tendency to attempt to develop theoretical ethical rules before the identification of computer-related ethical issues had occurred led Parker to undertake empirical work using scenario analysis to ascertain the ethical and unethical practices in the computer field. The first study was undertaken in 1977 and repeated in 1990. The result of these studies was a set of ethical guidelines focused on the general public, professionals, employers and employees (Parker et al, 1990).

In the mid 1970s, Walter Maner coined the term "computer ethics" to refer to the application of ethics theories from philosophy to ethical problems "created, transformed or exacerbated by computing technology." He went on in the late 1970s and early 1980s to develop and present university courses, curriculum materials and faculty workshops in this new and important field of academic research (Maner 1980). Now, twenty years later, Maner (1996) has examined and defended his original assumption that computer ethics is an academic field in its own right with unique ethical issues that would not have existed if computer technology had never been invented. He puts forward six levels of justification for the study of computer ethics, each level becoming a progressively stronger justification. The levels are:

Maner presents several examples to illustrate his argument, examples that appear to have no analogies in non-computing contexts. The failure to find satisfactory non-computer analogies, he says, "testifies to the uniqueness of computer ethics. Lack of an effective analogy forces us to discover new moral values, formulate new moral principles, develop new policies, and find new ways to think about the issues presented to us. For all of these reasons, the kind of issues presented deserve to be addressed separately from others that might at first appear similar. At the very least, they have been so transformed by computing technology that their altered form demands special attention."

It was James Moor (1985) who asserted that computers are "logically malleable" in the sense that "they can be shaped and moulded to do any activity that can be characterised in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations." It was this that led Tucker (1991) to suggest that there is a need to understand the basic cultural, social, legal and ethical issues inherent in the discipline of computing. Furthermore, Moor's work influenced Gotterbarn (1992) who suggested that professionals must be aware of their professional responsibilities, have available methods for resolving non-technical ethics questions and develop proactive skills to reduce the likelihood of ethical problems occurring.

The Scope of  Computer Ethics

There is a growing body of knowledge in this area. In addition to that already mentioned other valuable work has been undertaken, notably in the US. The eminent philosopher, Deborah Johnson (1994 and 1995)  is a leading authority in ethical issues. Her seminal book "Computer Ethics", now in its second edition, was the first philosophical textbook on computer ethics and was published in 1984. It was indicative, according to Mitcham (1995),"... of the shift in the philosophical community from metaphysical and epistemological discussions about computers to ethical and political ones ...". Johnson brings together philosophy, law and technology to provide an analysis of the ethical implications of widespread computer usage. She maintains that ethical issues surrounding computers are new species of traditional and recurrent moral issues. A similar stance is adopted by Spinello (1995). These types of perspective are valuable in deriving ways in which to achieve IS ethical sensitivity.

Huff and Finholt (1994) have co-ordinated empirical research with a social science focus. They bring together research by sociologists, anthropologists, economists, political scientists and psychologists in order to inform the ethical and professional discussion related to computing.  A number of useful  commentaries exist of ethically charged issues. Forester and Morrison (1990) discuss major problems created in society through computer usage while Dejoie, Fowler and Paradice (1991) compiled a compendium of papers addressing the ethical and societal dilemmas of the information technologies. Such commentaries whilst not providing guidance in resolving ethical dilemmas do provide valuable and detailed descriptions of the issues that need to be addressed.

It is interesting to note that much of the work has been concentrated in the philosophy and sociology disciplines with restricted input from the information systems and computer science disciplines. This may be the reason why Walsham (1996) has found that "... there is little published work which directly relates these [specific IS-related ethical] issues to more general ethical theory ...".  The work has tended to be conceptual and  more of a commentary on computer phenomena rather than an attempt to develop strategies to identify and address societal  and ethical issues associated with information systems and the underpinning information technology. As a whole, this work has formed the first generation of computer ethics where conceptual foundations have been laid down. It has been a generation with a national focus on single technologies. Computer applications considered have tended to be quite restricted and mainly business oriented.

The Dawning of a New Era

The mid 1990s has heralded the beginning of second generation computer ethics. The time has come to build upon and elaborate the conceptual foundation whilst, in parallel, develop the frameworks within which practical action can occur thus reducing the probability of  unforeseen effects of information technology application.

The Conceptual Dimension

Regarding the conceptual foundation, Krystyna Gorniak (1996) expresses the view that computer ethics is the most important theoretical development in ethics since the enlightenment two hundred years ago. Towering figures in ethics like Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant, she says, developed their monumental ethical systems in response to a world revolutionised by printing and industrial technology. Their new and powerful ethical systems emerged from prior technological revolutions and were very appropriate to the world at that time. Now, however, in a world of teleworking and virtual-reality, of telemedicine and cybersex, a new powerful ethical theory must emerge to provide guidance and decision making tools for the coming "cybersociety". Computer ethics, says Gorniak, will likely be the birthplace of the next major advance in ethical theory.

This is an interesting contrast to the view expressed by Walsham (1996) who states that "... the use of ethical theory is that it provides a basis for a cumulative tradition of research and writing ..." and that "... those writing on ethical issues related to computer-based IS ... incorporate an explicit connection between their work and mainstream ethical theory". Thus, on the one hand, Gorniak postulates that considering ethical issues related to IS will change the very nature of ethical theory whilst, on the other, Walsham postulates that ethical theory simply underpins the study of ethical issues related to IS. Time will tell who is nearer the truth but both arguments do illustrate the need for a partnership between philosophy and IS in order to research the ethical dimension of IS.

The Application Dimension

Turning from the conceptual dimension to the application dimension it is clear that a comprehensive set of ethical instruments needs to be identified and developed which will promote good practice. Within computing there are numerous activities and decisions to be made and most of these will have an ethical dimension. It is impractical to consider each minute issue in great detail and still hope to achieve the overall goal. The focus must be on the key issues which are likely to influence the success of the particular IS activity as well as promoting ethical sensitivity in a broader context. Rogerson and Bynum (1995a) define these ethical hot-spots as points where activities and decision making are likely to include a relatively high ethical dimension.

An example ethical hot-spot can be found in project management of an information system development activity. Investigating O'Connell's (1994) Structured Project Management (SPM) approach Rogerson (1996) suggested that it is this planning element of project management which lays down the foundations on which the project ethos is built. Here the scope of consideration is established, albeit implicitly or explicitly, which in turn locates the horizon beyond which issues are deemed not to influence the project or be influenced by the project. The scope of consideration is an ethical hot-spot. It is a common problem with information systems development projects that decisions concerned with, for example, feasibility, functionality, and implementation do not take into account the requirements of all those affected by the system once it becomes operational. This is illustrated by the cost benefit analysis activity undertaken at the beginning of most projects. This only takes into account the interests of those involved in the analysis and does not usually consider the rights and interests of all parties affected by the  proposed system. This view appears primarily "techno-economic" rather than "techno-socio-economic" that is often claimed.

The scope of consideration is influenced by the identification and involvement of stakeholders. Investigating 16 organisational IS-related projects led Farbey, Land and Targett (1993) to conclude that regarding evaluation of IT investment,"... the perception of what needed to be considered was disappointingly narrow, whether it concerned the possible scope and level of use of the system, [or] the range of people who could or should have been involved ... ". They discovered, with the exception of vendors, all stakeholders involved in evaluation were internal to the organisations. The implications of such restricted stakeholder involvement on achieving a socially and ethically sensitive evaluation are obvious.

Potential well-being of many individuals is likely to be at risk unless an ethically sensitive horizon is established for the scope of consideration. This horizon is more likely to occur if the principles of due care, fairness and social cost are prevalent during this activity. In this way the project management process will embrace, at the onset, the views and concerns of all parties affected by the project. Concerns over, for example, deskilling of jobs, redundancy, the break-up of social groupings can be aired at the earliest opportunity and the project goals adjusted if necessary.

Turning to the overall development process, there are numerous methodological approaches to information systems development. Few deal adequately with the ethical dimensions of the development process. Avison (1995) criticises the development methodologies, such as SSADM, Merise and Yourdon, that are adopted by most organisations today because they tend to stress formal and technical aspects. He argues that, "The emphasis ... must move away from technical systems which have behavioural and social problems to social systems  which rely to an increasing extent on information technology."  He suggests that the human, social and organisational aspects are often overlooked. The consideration of this broader perspective only seems to occur in the event of systems failure or under-performance. This issue is addressed by Wood-Harper et al (1995) who identify a number of dilemmas which a systems analyst might face when undertaking a systems development activity using a methodological approach. These dilemmas are summarised as:

It seems clear that research is required into the generalised manner in which ethical issues can be accounted for together with enhancement of specific methodologies. Some work has already been undertaken by Rogerson and Bynum (1995b) in developing a four perspectives model, based on Aristotle's model of ethical decision making, for the preliminary analysis and decision making at the beginning of any systems development project.

It is important to recognise that there are a few methodological approaches, notably ETHICS from Mumford (1983), Soft Systems Methodology from Checkland (1981) and Multiview from Avison and Wood-Harper (1990) that attempt to include consideration of  ethical and societal issues. In evaluating ETHICS, Jayaratna (1994) suggests that, "[it] offers many design guidelines useful for the understanding and the design  of human-centred systems, but  ...does not offer models or ways for performing ... the steps. Nor does it offer any models for handling interpersonal and political conflicts." He concludes that, "ETHICS is committed to a particular ethical stance [and] does not offer any means of discussing or resolving many of the ethical dilemmas ... in systems development." This appears to be a recurrent criticism of such methodologies. Whilst it is laudable that ethical sensitivity is raised as an issue worthy of investigation, the manner in which investigation is undertaken and, ultimately, an ethically defensible position derived is vague. Methodologies need to be enhanced to address these criticisms.

Whilst methodologies provide frameworks for action it is people who undertake the work and therefore it is people who directly influence the level of ethical sensitivity within the process and outcome of information systems development. Therefore professional conduct is a key element of computer ethics. There are eight ethical principles regarding how computer professionals should conduct themselves (Rogerson 1996). These principles can be found embedded in professional codes of conduct such as that of the ACM. Given the global nature of computing, it is interesting to note that IFIP (the International Federation for Information Processing) has decided to establish an "Ethics Task Group" to analyse the codes of ethics of a wide variety of its member organisations and then offer member societies non-binding advice and guidelines for the development of good codes of ethics (Berleur 1996). Frank Connolly (1996) argues that a kind of global ethics is necessary to the success of the information superhighway. Since national and regional laws differ widely around the world, and since laws provide only minimum standards for behaviour anyway, users of the information superhighway cannot depend only on laws to govern the behaviour of all users. The adoption of a global set of ethical rules seems to be the only way to make the information superhighway fully functional.

It is very concerning that there are numerous occurrences of unethical practice in IS-related work. A recent survey of a weekly computer trade journal in the UK revealed a total of 40 separate issues relating to ethics was reported in a six month period. Of these eight were general informative items, nine reported on multiple incidents of  violations and 23 reported on specific instances (Rogerson 1995). The well publicised failures of information systems projects at the London Ambulance Service (LASCAD), the Stock Exchange (Taurus) and Wessex Health Authority (RISP) together with the recent catalogue of software problems in "fly-by-wire" systems for aircraft  are indicative of the detrimental social and ethical impact of systems improperly developed and implemented.

The Scope of Research

From this range of illustrations it appears that there is much more research to be undertaken in this area. Perhaps research to date has focused too much on causal effects and issue / phenomena identification at the expense of research resulting in usable instruments which promote ethical sensitivity within the information systems domain. Maybe this is the reason why poor IS practice  appears prevalent and why methodologies such as ETHICS are relatively unpopular. This new research thrust is not simply restricted to the sub-domain defined by UKAIS (1995) as the social and cultural effects of technology-based information systems. It can be argued that this research will have an impact upon many of the ten sub-domains of information systems as defined by UKAIS. Similarly, it will impact upon the ESRC's Thematic Priorities of: Globalisation, Regions and Emerging Markets; Governance and Regulation; Social Integration and Exclusion; and Human Communication and the Social Shaping of Technology. This research must embrace professional practice, user and potential user concerns, policy and strategy formulation and technological impact. Such work is multi-disciplinary. It needs the combined knowledge and expertise of disciplines that include information systems, philosophy, sociology, law and computer science. Badaracco (1992) put forward the four questions evaluation model for decision making and action in the world of work. It comprised these four questions: The first question deals with the morality of consequences, the second with the morality of rights, the third with integrity and the fourth with practicality. There is a correspondence between these questions and the description of the roles of an IS analyst put forward by Walsham (1993), particularly the role of moral agent which focuses on " ... power and political action, social differentiation, and the bias and limitations of particular language usage".   Addressing Badaracco's four questions in the context of IS is the foundation for a research agenda which aims to make IS intuitively ethical and to make ethical sensitivity the motto of IS practitioners. To succeed  locally the research must be multi-disciplinary. To succeed globally the research must be multi-disciplinary and multinational.

Information Ethics not Computer Ethics

The second generation of computer ethics is better termed information ethics. At its heart is a rich, broad and rigorous conceptual platform. There is a global focus on multiple technologies that are integrated to create powerful information systems. These powerful information systems have
applications in all aspects of human activity and endeavour. The social impact of information technology is growing exponentially. Computers are changing where and how we work, where and how we learn, shop, eat, vote, receive medical care, spend free time, make war, make friends, and even make love. The computer revolution, therefore, is not merely technological and financial, it is fundamentally social and ethical. It is clear, therefore,  that activity related to the development and use of information systems and the underpinning information technologies must include explicit action which addresses the ethical issues surrounding the development and use of such systems. The rise of computer ethics over the past two decades brought much needed ethical and social perspectives to information technology. However, more and more of the world is becoming "wired". We are entering a generation marked by globalisation and ubiquitous computing. The second generation of computer ethics, therefore, must be an era of global information ethics. The stakes are much higher, and consequently considerations and applications of information ethics must be broader, more profound and above all effective in helping to realise a democratic and empowering technology rather than an enslaving or debilitating one.

References


Publication details:
ROGERSON, S., BYNUM, T.W., Information ethics: the second generation, The future of information systems, UK Academy for Information Systems Conference, 1996.